As already noted in previous blog entries Stephen's actions toward the clergy in England had dire consequences for his kingship particularly his treatment of Roger, Bishop of Salisbury in the year 1139. In addition, his appointment of Theobald of Bec as Archbishop of Canterbury caused further ill feeling between the king and his brother, Bishop Henry. We also know that the last few years of Stephen's reign were dominated by his unsuccessful attempts to have his son Eustace crowned his in own lifetime.
Two letters, one written by Bernard of Clairvaux in about 1140 and one by Pope Eugene III in 1147, provide further evidence of Stephen's sometimes awkward handling of church affairs. Both letters were addressed to his queen, Matilda of Bolougne, and both requested her intervention with the king.
The first letter concerned the appointment of William Fitzherbert to the See of York. He was a relative of Stephen's and the king had not only suggested his appointment but invested him after an election which was fiercely contested. This caused a long running dispute that continued for six years. During this episode Bernard also wrote a strongly worded letter to Stephen which appears to have gone unheeded.
The subject of the second letter was in regard to the episcopacy of London. Matilda, The Empress, had selected Robert de Sigillo and he had been canonically elected in 1141. After Stephen had been restored to his position as king he demanded an oath of fealty from Robert which he refused to give. Stephen persecuted him and in his letter the Pope urged the queen to intervene and persuade the king to accept a promise instead of the oath.
12 August 2011
10 August 2011
Talking about Legacies
Of the two, Stephen's legacy was more obsure, via his daughter Mary (Marie) and his connection to Philippa of Hainault, the wife of Edward III, while Matilda's was direct and obvious, via her son Henry II. After his coronation Matilda continued to act as Regent in Normandy during his absences and Charters were issued in both of their names. For his own part Henry, in addition to all of the lands and titles he already held, managed to gain a foothold in Ireland. How did this happen?
Although I'm going off on a tangent and diverging from the original intent of the blog somewhat, the events of this period represent an important convergence point in the histories of England, Wales, and Ireland, and I think it's a story worth telling.
As mentioned in the blog entry "Stephen and the Welsh", Henry conducted largely successful campaigns in Wales in 1157, 63, and 65, and the Norman presence was fairly well established despite various rumblings and revolts. And what has this to do with Ireland you ask? Well ...
Ferns (Fearna) is a small historic town in the north of County Wexford and much of the history of modern Ireland begins here. It was the base of Diarmait Mac Murchada, King of Leinster, who appealed to Henry II of England for aid after he was ousted from his lands by Tairrdelbach mac Ruaidri Ua Conchobair, the High King of Eire, in 1166. Diarmait fled first to Wales and then followed Henry to Aquitaine to seek his support and consent to recruit soldiers. For Henry, who had first given thought to an invasion of Ireland soon after his coronation*, it was an opportunity too good to pass up. He agreed to help Diarmait reassert control in Leinster and eventually made men, knights, and nobles available for this purpose.
By 1167 Diarmait had obtained the services of Maurice Fitz Gerald and the first Norman knight, Richard Fitz Godbert de Roche, landed in Ireland in that year. In 1168 after several appeals to Rhys ap Gruffydd, the Prince of Deheubarth, Diarmait secured the release Fitz Gerald's half-brother Robert Fitz-Stephen from captivity so that he could also take part in the Irish campaign. Fitz-Stephen helped Diarmait organise a mercenary army of Norman and Welsh soldiers. In something of a coup Diarmait also obtained the support of Richard de Clare, the Earl of Pembroke, nicknamed Strongbow*.
In May 1169 the main body of Norman and Welsh forces landed in Wexford near Bannow strand. After a two day siege during which all the ships in the town's harbour were burnt, the defenders sent envoys to Diarmait. A bishop (or maybe two) in the town had persuaded them to surrender. The defenders renewed their allegiance to him and the Siege of Wexford was over.
Not content with this victory Mac Murchada sought vengeance for past ills, assembled an army, and prepared to march towards Dublin. His ambitious plans apparently also included eventually marching on Tara. Over-reaching himself Diarmait lost a battle and had to retreat. Strongbow had not been in the initial invasion force and after appeals from Diarmait, who was facing new threats to his position, he finally arrived in Ireland in August 1170. Within a short time Leinster was settled and Waterford and Dublin were under Diarmait's control. Strongbow’s support came at a price though and in exchange for his loyalty Diarmait offered Richard his daughter Aoife in marriage, to which she agreed, and made him heir to his kingdom.
Of far greater consequence though was the fact that Diarmait had, by his appeals for help, invited the Normans to invade Ireland.
Henry II had kept a watchful eye on these events. He grew concerned that Strongbow and his supporters would become independent from him and perhaps even establish of a rival Norman state in Ireland. In 1171 Henry arrived in Leinster with an army in order to establish his authority. He stayed for six months and declared himself Lord of Ireland. During this time many Irish princes and all of the Normans took oaths of homage to him. In 1177 he named his youngest son, John, Lord of Ireland. The domination of Ireland by the English had begun.
Matilda, The Empress, of course had not lived to see the outcome of her son's ambitions in Ireland but in an interesting footnote she had opposed Henry's original plan. (see notes below)
Notes:
* Soon after his coronation in 1154 Henry had sent an embassy to Pope Adrian IV led by Bishop Arnold of Lisieux. The group of clerics requested authorisation for Henry to invade Ireland. Some historians suggest that this resulted in the issue of the papal bull Laudabiliter in 1155, although the authenticity of this has been questioned. Henry may have acted under the influence of a plot in which English clerics sought to dominate the Irish church, perhaps he was simply ambitious and greedy for more, or it’s possible that he may have intended to secure Ireland as a lordship for his younger brother William who died soon after the plan was devised. Whatever the case may be, any plans for Ireland that Henry may have had were laid aside at this time.
* To his contemporaries Richard de Clare, Strongbow, was known as Earl of Striguil
* Maurice Fitz Gerald had fought at the Battle of Crug Mawr in 1136 (again see the post Stephen and the Welsh for more information)
* More About Robert Fitz-Stephen:
Robert Fitz-Stephen was the illegitimate son of Stephen, Constable of Cardigan. His mother was Nest ferch Rhys, a Welsh princess of Deheubarth renowned for her beauty. Robert succeeded his father in the office of Custos Campe Aberteifi and first appears in history in 1157. That year Henry II invaded Gwynedd and while the main army faced the forces of Owain east of the River Conwy another force, which included Robert and his half-brother Henry Fitzroy, attacked Anglesey by sea. This force was defeated in battle. Robert was wounded and his half-brother killed.
Robert pops up again when he was captured by Rhys ap Gruffydd in 1165. He was released after appeals by Diarmait, King of Leinster, the first in 1167 and again in 1168.
As already mentioned Robert Fitz-Stephen helped organise an army for Diarmait and in May 1169 led the vanguard of Welsh-Norman auxiliaries to Ireland with a force of 30 knights, 60 men-at-arms and 300 archers. Maurice Fitz Gerald landed at the same bay with 10 knights and 60 archers the next day. This force merged with about 500 soldiers commanded by Diarmait. After their victory at the Siege of Wexford, Mac Murchada granted Fitz-Stephen and Fitz Gerald a share in two cantreds, Bargy and Forth. This comprised all the land between Bannow and the town of Wexford.
From the writing of Giraldus Cambrensis (Gerald of Wales or Gerald de Barri):
"Mac Murchard was much delighted and encouraged by the tidings of this new arrival, and calling to mind, with the desire of vengeance, the deep injuries which the people of Dublin had done both to his father and himself, he assembled an army and prepared to march towards Dublin. In the meantime, Fitz-Stephen was building a fort upon a steep rock, commonly called the Karrec, situated about two miles from Wexford, a place strong by nature, but which art made still stronger."
Robert received a further grant for services rendered in 1177 - the kingdom of Cork from Lismore to the sea with the exception of the city of Cork. This one was made by Henry II and shared jointly with Miles de Cogan. However things did not go quite so smoothly this time. The Irish princes disputed the king's right to dispose of the territory, arguing that they had not resisted the king or committed any act that justified the forfeiture of their lands. Consequently, Fitz-Stephen was nearly overwhelmed by a rising in the Kingdom of Desmond in 1182 and experienced great difficulty in maintaining his position. Philip de Barri, the second son of his half-sister Angharad, came to Ireland in 1185 and together with yet another relative, Raymond FitzGerald (Raymond Le Gros), they recovered the lands and reached a compromise agreement. The barons held seven cantreds near Cork while the remaining twenty four were retained by the Irish princes. Fitz-Stephen would eventually cede these territories to Philip de Barri as he had no living male heirs. The date of his death is uncertain.
Notes:
Oh, what a tangled web this family weaves!
Henry Fitzroy was the illegitimate son of Nest and King Henry I
Rhys ap Gruffydd was the nephew of Robert’s mother Nest
Nest was also the mother of Maurice and Angharad
Robert de Barri was present at the Siege of Wexford. He was the eldest son of Robert’s half-sister Angharad
Miles de Cogan was the son of Robert’s half-sister Gwladys
Although I'm going off on a tangent and diverging from the original intent of the blog somewhat, the events of this period represent an important convergence point in the histories of England, Wales, and Ireland, and I think it's a story worth telling.
As mentioned in the blog entry "Stephen and the Welsh", Henry conducted largely successful campaigns in Wales in 1157, 63, and 65, and the Norman presence was fairly well established despite various rumblings and revolts. And what has this to do with Ireland you ask? Well ...
Ferns (Fearna) is a small historic town in the north of County Wexford and much of the history of modern Ireland begins here. It was the base of Diarmait Mac Murchada, King of Leinster, who appealed to Henry II of England for aid after he was ousted from his lands by Tairrdelbach mac Ruaidri Ua Conchobair, the High King of Eire, in 1166. Diarmait fled first to Wales and then followed Henry to Aquitaine to seek his support and consent to recruit soldiers. For Henry, who had first given thought to an invasion of Ireland soon after his coronation*, it was an opportunity too good to pass up. He agreed to help Diarmait reassert control in Leinster and eventually made men, knights, and nobles available for this purpose.
By 1167 Diarmait had obtained the services of Maurice Fitz Gerald and the first Norman knight, Richard Fitz Godbert de Roche, landed in Ireland in that year. In 1168 after several appeals to Rhys ap Gruffydd, the Prince of Deheubarth, Diarmait secured the release Fitz Gerald's half-brother Robert Fitz-Stephen from captivity so that he could also take part in the Irish campaign. Fitz-Stephen helped Diarmait organise a mercenary army of Norman and Welsh soldiers. In something of a coup Diarmait also obtained the support of Richard de Clare, the Earl of Pembroke, nicknamed Strongbow*.
In May 1169 the main body of Norman and Welsh forces landed in Wexford near Bannow strand. After a two day siege during which all the ships in the town's harbour were burnt, the defenders sent envoys to Diarmait. A bishop (or maybe two) in the town had persuaded them to surrender. The defenders renewed their allegiance to him and the Siege of Wexford was over.
Not content with this victory Mac Murchada sought vengeance for past ills, assembled an army, and prepared to march towards Dublin. His ambitious plans apparently also included eventually marching on Tara. Over-reaching himself Diarmait lost a battle and had to retreat. Strongbow had not been in the initial invasion force and after appeals from Diarmait, who was facing new threats to his position, he finally arrived in Ireland in August 1170. Within a short time Leinster was settled and Waterford and Dublin were under Diarmait's control. Strongbow’s support came at a price though and in exchange for his loyalty Diarmait offered Richard his daughter Aoife in marriage, to which she agreed, and made him heir to his kingdom.
Of far greater consequence though was the fact that Diarmait had, by his appeals for help, invited the Normans to invade Ireland.
Henry II had kept a watchful eye on these events. He grew concerned that Strongbow and his supporters would become independent from him and perhaps even establish of a rival Norman state in Ireland. In 1171 Henry arrived in Leinster with an army in order to establish his authority. He stayed for six months and declared himself Lord of Ireland. During this time many Irish princes and all of the Normans took oaths of homage to him. In 1177 he named his youngest son, John, Lord of Ireland. The domination of Ireland by the English had begun.
Matilda, The Empress, of course had not lived to see the outcome of her son's ambitions in Ireland but in an interesting footnote she had opposed Henry's original plan. (see notes below)
Notes:
* Soon after his coronation in 1154 Henry had sent an embassy to Pope Adrian IV led by Bishop Arnold of Lisieux. The group of clerics requested authorisation for Henry to invade Ireland. Some historians suggest that this resulted in the issue of the papal bull Laudabiliter in 1155, although the authenticity of this has been questioned. Henry may have acted under the influence of a plot in which English clerics sought to dominate the Irish church, perhaps he was simply ambitious and greedy for more, or it’s possible that he may have intended to secure Ireland as a lordship for his younger brother William who died soon after the plan was devised. Whatever the case may be, any plans for Ireland that Henry may have had were laid aside at this time.
* To his contemporaries Richard de Clare, Strongbow, was known as Earl of Striguil
* Maurice Fitz Gerald had fought at the Battle of Crug Mawr in 1136 (again see the post Stephen and the Welsh for more information)
* More About Robert Fitz-Stephen:
Robert Fitz-Stephen was the illegitimate son of Stephen, Constable of Cardigan. His mother was Nest ferch Rhys, a Welsh princess of Deheubarth renowned for her beauty. Robert succeeded his father in the office of Custos Campe Aberteifi and first appears in history in 1157. That year Henry II invaded Gwynedd and while the main army faced the forces of Owain east of the River Conwy another force, which included Robert and his half-brother Henry Fitzroy, attacked Anglesey by sea. This force was defeated in battle. Robert was wounded and his half-brother killed.
Robert pops up again when he was captured by Rhys ap Gruffydd in 1165. He was released after appeals by Diarmait, King of Leinster, the first in 1167 and again in 1168.
As already mentioned Robert Fitz-Stephen helped organise an army for Diarmait and in May 1169 led the vanguard of Welsh-Norman auxiliaries to Ireland with a force of 30 knights, 60 men-at-arms and 300 archers. Maurice Fitz Gerald landed at the same bay with 10 knights and 60 archers the next day. This force merged with about 500 soldiers commanded by Diarmait. After their victory at the Siege of Wexford, Mac Murchada granted Fitz-Stephen and Fitz Gerald a share in two cantreds, Bargy and Forth. This comprised all the land between Bannow and the town of Wexford.
From the writing of Giraldus Cambrensis (Gerald of Wales or Gerald de Barri):
"Mac Murchard was much delighted and encouraged by the tidings of this new arrival, and calling to mind, with the desire of vengeance, the deep injuries which the people of Dublin had done both to his father and himself, he assembled an army and prepared to march towards Dublin. In the meantime, Fitz-Stephen was building a fort upon a steep rock, commonly called the Karrec, situated about two miles from Wexford, a place strong by nature, but which art made still stronger."
Robert received a further grant for services rendered in 1177 - the kingdom of Cork from Lismore to the sea with the exception of the city of Cork. This one was made by Henry II and shared jointly with Miles de Cogan. However things did not go quite so smoothly this time. The Irish princes disputed the king's right to dispose of the territory, arguing that they had not resisted the king or committed any act that justified the forfeiture of their lands. Consequently, Fitz-Stephen was nearly overwhelmed by a rising in the Kingdom of Desmond in 1182 and experienced great difficulty in maintaining his position. Philip de Barri, the second son of his half-sister Angharad, came to Ireland in 1185 and together with yet another relative, Raymond FitzGerald (Raymond Le Gros), they recovered the lands and reached a compromise agreement. The barons held seven cantreds near Cork while the remaining twenty four were retained by the Irish princes. Fitz-Stephen would eventually cede these territories to Philip de Barri as he had no living male heirs. The date of his death is uncertain.
Notes:
Oh, what a tangled web this family weaves!
Henry Fitzroy was the illegitimate son of Nest and King Henry I
Rhys ap Gruffydd was the nephew of Robert’s mother Nest
Nest was also the mother of Maurice and Angharad
Robert de Barri was present at the Siege of Wexford. He was the eldest son of Robert’s half-sister Angharad
Miles de Cogan was the son of Robert’s half-sister Gwladys
06 February 2011
M'Lord's Trivia
A quick look at some King Stephen trivia ~ Did you know?
• Some of the castles besieged by Stephen include Exeter, Shrewsbury, Dudley, Ludlow, Wallingford, Arundel, Corfe, Leeds, Lincoln, Oxford, Faringdon, Pevensey, Worcester, and Newbury.
• When Stephen had Roger of Salisbury and his nephews arrested in 1139 among the castles he seized were Devizes, Sherborne, Newark, and Sleaford.
• In addition to Faversham Abbey where they were buried, King Stephen and his Queen, Matilda, founded Coggeshall Abbey, which was situated south of the town of Coggeshall in Essex, in 1140. They were also supporters of the Templars.
• Stephen's adherents at the Battle of Lincoln included William of Ypres, William de Warenne the 3rd Earl of Surrey, Alain de Dinan, Gilbert de Clare, Baldwin de Clare, Richard Fitz-Urse, and Ilbert de Lacy. William of Ypres was the illegitimate son of Philip of Loo who was a younger son of Robert I, Count of Flanders. Alain de Dinan married Eléonore, the daughter of Stephen, Count of Tréguier and Lord of Richmond who was the younger son of Eudes, Count of Penthièvre. William de Warenne, 3rd Earl of Surrey joined the Crusades in 1146 and was killed in battle on his way to the Holy Land. His daughter Isabel married Stephen's youngest son William of Blois who became the 4th Earl of Surrey.
• Stephen built Brightwell Castle near Wallingford in 1145. It is thought that his brother Henry, Bishop of Winchester held a manor there and that this castle was intended as both protection for the estate and as a counter to Wallingford castle which was held by Brian Fitzcount for the Empress Matilda. The castle was destroyed by Henry of Anjou in 1153.
• In 1153 Stephen appointed Richard de Lucy Constable of the Tower in London. Richard was subsequently made Chief Justiciar of England jointly with Robert de Beaumont when Henry II became king in 1154.
• Stephen fathered at least 3 and possibly 5 illegitimate children, one of whom was Gervase, Abbot of Westminster 1138 - c.1157. Prior to his marriage Stephen had been associated with a woman named Dameta who is described as a gentlewoman of Normandy.
• Some of the castles besieged by Stephen include Exeter, Shrewsbury, Dudley, Ludlow, Wallingford, Arundel, Corfe, Leeds, Lincoln, Oxford, Faringdon, Pevensey, Worcester, and Newbury.
• When Stephen had Roger of Salisbury and his nephews arrested in 1139 among the castles he seized were Devizes, Sherborne, Newark, and Sleaford.
• In addition to Faversham Abbey where they were buried, King Stephen and his Queen, Matilda, founded Coggeshall Abbey, which was situated south of the town of Coggeshall in Essex, in 1140. They were also supporters of the Templars.
• Stephen's adherents at the Battle of Lincoln included William of Ypres, William de Warenne the 3rd Earl of Surrey, Alain de Dinan, Gilbert de Clare, Baldwin de Clare, Richard Fitz-Urse, and Ilbert de Lacy. William of Ypres was the illegitimate son of Philip of Loo who was a younger son of Robert I, Count of Flanders. Alain de Dinan married Eléonore, the daughter of Stephen, Count of Tréguier and Lord of Richmond who was the younger son of Eudes, Count of Penthièvre. William de Warenne, 3rd Earl of Surrey joined the Crusades in 1146 and was killed in battle on his way to the Holy Land. His daughter Isabel married Stephen's youngest son William of Blois who became the 4th Earl of Surrey.
• Stephen built Brightwell Castle near Wallingford in 1145. It is thought that his brother Henry, Bishop of Winchester held a manor there and that this castle was intended as both protection for the estate and as a counter to Wallingford castle which was held by Brian Fitzcount for the Empress Matilda. The castle was destroyed by Henry of Anjou in 1153.
• In 1153 Stephen appointed Richard de Lucy Constable of the Tower in London. Richard was subsequently made Chief Justiciar of England jointly with Robert de Beaumont when Henry II became king in 1154.
• Stephen fathered at least 3 and possibly 5 illegitimate children, one of whom was Gervase, Abbot of Westminster 1138 - c.1157. Prior to his marriage Stephen had been associated with a woman named Dameta who is described as a gentlewoman of Normandy.
03 February 2011
Stephen's Administration
The information in this blog to date has mainly followed the conventional, widely accepted story of the reign of King Stephen. However, at this point I would like to pose a question: Can it be said with any great authority that the administration of the English realm entirely disintegrated during the years 1135-54? It can't be disputed that Stephen did make mistakes at times in his dealings with the clergy, barons, and important people such as King David of Scotland and indeed with Matilda, The Empress. The chronicle writers certainly indicate that Stephen's authority was severely eroded during the course of his reign. A commendable person with charm and many good qualities but perhaps not suitable for the harsh, ruthless reality of kingship. However, is there sufficient evidence which emphatically proves that the problems Stephen encountered led to a complete breakdown in administration? The absence of Pipe Rolls for the years 1131-54 is worth noting but cannot be taken as conclusive evidence that it did, so what do we know?
What else can we discern from those learned clerics, the chronicle writers on whom we rely so heavily for crucial information? Is there evidence of prejudice and the imposition of personal beliefs and opinion (or those of their benefactors) and second hand information to be found among their writing? Do their assessments of Stephen’s reign present as fair and balanced? For example ~
• from the Peterborough Chronicle: "When the traitors understood that he was a gentle man, and soft and good, and did not execute justice, they committed all manner of atrocity."
• from a chronicler writing under the patronage of Robert of Gloucester: "By his good nature and by the way he jested and enjoyed himself even in the company of his inferiors Stephen earned an affection that can hardly be described."
Diplomatic relations: Stephen enjoyed good relations not only with his brother Theobald of Blois and Chartres as could be expected but also in the early years of his reign with the French King Louis VI. How much was this due to their self interest? However, relations with France did eventually become more difficult during the reign of Louis VII due to the circumstances of the time. In Normandy Waleran, Count of Meulan, was given the task of overseeing matters and there was no immediate revolt against Stephen's kingship (nor in England for that matter). Indeed, Geoffrey of Anjou did not stamp his authority on the duchy until 1144. Ultimately however, it could be argued that perhaps Stephen's one and only visit to Normandy in 1137 was insufficient to keep the loyalty and confidence of the barons indefinitely especially those who held no great estates in Britain. Stephen's enduring popularity with the people of London in particular can partly be explained by the question of trade. It was in the interests of the traders of London to support the King, given his status as Count of Boulogne by right of his wife put Stephen in a commanding position to dominate/control cross-channel trade via the port of Wissant. The clergy and monastic life also continued to flourish in the years 1135-54 and contact, for good or ill, was maintained with the Popes installed in Rome during the course of Stephen's reign. It is also true however that Stephen didn't always get it right, for example, in his treatment of Roger of Salisbury in 1139.
Matters of the Realm: Stephen covered vast amounts of territory in his defence and administration of the English realm and even during times of siege and warfare received various missives about church and state matters to which he was able to effectively respond. In addition, when a situation required such action, he did not hesitate to press a siege or shirk from battle. He was able to contain the Empress, Robert of Gloucester, and their supporters primarily in the southwest of England, and after his release from imprisonment in November 1141 he was still acceptable enough to the barons to be able to resume his kingship unopposed. In addition, there were barons, such as William d'Aubigny and Simon de Senlis (Simon II of St Liz) for example, who remained loyal to Stephen throughout his reign.
The number of surviving Charters issued, approximately 720, is not insufficient for a reign of nineteen years duration, and the details of the events of 1135-54 indicate willingness on Stephen's part to negotiate and settle disputes. On the other hand a number of historians point out instances of Stephen making apparently arbitrary decisions which later gave him cause for regret. The issue of coins, although debased at one point, continued throughout Stephen's reign and the last issue continued to be in circulation until 1158. In summary, despite the civil war and the erosion of Stephen's authority, it would seem that the chancery continued to function, royal justice continued to be dispensed in the shires in many instances, and exchequer sessions continued to be held.
I'll leave the reader to ponder these matters and perhaps draw their own conclusions.
What else can we discern from those learned clerics, the chronicle writers on whom we rely so heavily for crucial information? Is there evidence of prejudice and the imposition of personal beliefs and opinion (or those of their benefactors) and second hand information to be found among their writing? Do their assessments of Stephen’s reign present as fair and balanced? For example ~
• from the Peterborough Chronicle: "When the traitors understood that he was a gentle man, and soft and good, and did not execute justice, they committed all manner of atrocity."
• from a chronicler writing under the patronage of Robert of Gloucester: "By his good nature and by the way he jested and enjoyed himself even in the company of his inferiors Stephen earned an affection that can hardly be described."
Diplomatic relations: Stephen enjoyed good relations not only with his brother Theobald of Blois and Chartres as could be expected but also in the early years of his reign with the French King Louis VI. How much was this due to their self interest? However, relations with France did eventually become more difficult during the reign of Louis VII due to the circumstances of the time. In Normandy Waleran, Count of Meulan, was given the task of overseeing matters and there was no immediate revolt against Stephen's kingship (nor in England for that matter). Indeed, Geoffrey of Anjou did not stamp his authority on the duchy until 1144. Ultimately however, it could be argued that perhaps Stephen's one and only visit to Normandy in 1137 was insufficient to keep the loyalty and confidence of the barons indefinitely especially those who held no great estates in Britain. Stephen's enduring popularity with the people of London in particular can partly be explained by the question of trade. It was in the interests of the traders of London to support the King, given his status as Count of Boulogne by right of his wife put Stephen in a commanding position to dominate/control cross-channel trade via the port of Wissant. The clergy and monastic life also continued to flourish in the years 1135-54 and contact, for good or ill, was maintained with the Popes installed in Rome during the course of Stephen's reign. It is also true however that Stephen didn't always get it right, for example, in his treatment of Roger of Salisbury in 1139.
Matters of the Realm: Stephen covered vast amounts of territory in his defence and administration of the English realm and even during times of siege and warfare received various missives about church and state matters to which he was able to effectively respond. In addition, when a situation required such action, he did not hesitate to press a siege or shirk from battle. He was able to contain the Empress, Robert of Gloucester, and their supporters primarily in the southwest of England, and after his release from imprisonment in November 1141 he was still acceptable enough to the barons to be able to resume his kingship unopposed. In addition, there were barons, such as William d'Aubigny and Simon de Senlis (Simon II of St Liz) for example, who remained loyal to Stephen throughout his reign.
The number of surviving Charters issued, approximately 720, is not insufficient for a reign of nineteen years duration, and the details of the events of 1135-54 indicate willingness on Stephen's part to negotiate and settle disputes. On the other hand a number of historians point out instances of Stephen making apparently arbitrary decisions which later gave him cause for regret. The issue of coins, although debased at one point, continued throughout Stephen's reign and the last issue continued to be in circulation until 1158. In summary, despite the civil war and the erosion of Stephen's authority, it would seem that the chancery continued to function, royal justice continued to be dispensed in the shires in many instances, and exchequer sessions continued to be held.
I'll leave the reader to ponder these matters and perhaps draw their own conclusions.
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